The Fabric of a Nation: Charting the Past and Future of Bangladesh’s Textile and Garment Industry

Executive Summary

The textile and garment industry of Bangladesh stands as a monumental testament to rapid industrialization, transforming a nation once described as a “bottomless basket” into the world’s second-largest apparel exporter. This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the sector’s historical trajectory, its current socio-economic architecture, and the critical crossroads it now faces. From its ancient heritage of producing exquisite Muslin to its modern-day status as a $47 billion export behemoth, the industry’s journey has been defined by strategic opportunism, a vast labor pool, and pivotal global policies.

The modern Ready-Made Garments (RMG) sector was born in the late 1970s, catalyzed by a strategic partnership between South Korea’s Daewoo and local pioneers. This initial knowledge transfer, amplified by the protective incubation of the Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA), allowed the industry to flourish, building a model predicated on competitive labor costs. Today, the sector is the undisputed engine of the Bangladeshi economy, accounting for over 84% of total export earnings and approximately 11% of the national GDP. It directly employs over four million people, a majority of whom are women, making it a powerful, albeit complex, agent of social change and female empowerment.

However, the industry’s foundation is being tested. The 2013 Rana Plaza collapse was a profound inflection point, forcing a systemic shift from a purely cost-driven model to one where safety and compliance are non-negotiable. The subsequent reforms, led by international bodies like the Accord and the Alliance, have dramatically improved factory safety but have also increased operational costs, adding pressure to an already low-margin business.

Simultaneously, the industry is navigating the crosscurrents of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. The adoption of automation and digitalization is accelerating, promising enhanced efficiency but creating a fundamental paradox: the displacement of the very low-skilled, predominantly female workforce that built the sector. This technological transition is occurring faster than the upskilling initiatives designed to manage it, creating a looming “skills cliff” with profound social implications.

Looking forward, the industry faces a pincer movement of external threats. The potential imposition of prohibitive US tariffs and the impending loss of preferential trade access to the European Union upon Bangladesh’s graduation from Least Developed Country (LDC) status attack the two core pillars of its traditional business model: low cost and market access. These are compounded by domestic fault lines, including a critical energy crisis and political uncertainty.

The only viable path forward is a strategic pivot from volume to value. This transformation is already underway, marked by a world-leading push into sustainable “green” factories and a nascent but crucial shift toward producing high-value, complex apparel for luxury brands. This report concludes with a set of strategic imperatives for policymakers, industry leaders, international buyers, and civil society, outlining a roadmap for navigating these challenges. To secure a resilient future, Bangladesh must accelerate its move up the value chain, invest in a “just transition” for its workforce, solidify its brand as a global leader in sustainable manufacturing, and address its domestic infrastructure deficits with urgent resolve. The fabric of the nation’s future prosperity depends on it.

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I. From Muslin to Mass Market: A Historical Trajectory of Bangladesh’s Textile Dominance

The spectacular rise of Bangladesh’s modern garment industry is not a recent phenomenon but the latest chapter in a long and storied history of textile artisanship. Its current global dominance was not inevitable; it was the product of a deep-seated historical precedent, a series of catalytic events in the post-independence era, and a confluence of favorable global policies that created a unique window of opportunity. Understanding this trajectory is essential to grasping the structural foundations of the industry today.

1.1 Ancient Roots and Colonial Decline: The Legacy of Muslin and Handloom

Bangladesh’s heritage as a center of textile excellence dates back millennia. Archaeological evidence from the 1st century AD confirms its fame for artistic textile production.¹ During the Mughal era, the region, then known as Bengal, was a global hub for the muslin and silk trade, exporting its coveted fabrics to Europe, Central Asia, and East Asia.² The legendary Dhaka Muslin, a cotton fabric of such extraordinary fineness and transparency, was a prized luxury good in the Roman Empire, where it was known by poetic names like

nebula (mist) and venti textiles (woven winds).¹ This ancient craft established a deep, latent skill base in spinning and weaving within the population.

This flourishing artisanal economy faced a precipitous decline with the onset of the British Industrial Revolution and colonial rule. The mechanized textile mills of England emerged as powerful competitors, and British imperial policy actively worked to dismantle the indigenous industry.³ A widely held belief, reflecting the economic devastation of the period, recounts harsh methods used to force Bengali artisans to cease production, ensuring a captive market for British-made fabrics.³ This colonial-era de-industrialization left a profound scar, but the underlying artisanal skills, though suppressed, were not entirely extinguished.

1.2 The Birth of an Industry (1970s-1980s): Post-Independence Catalysts

Following a devastating war of independence in 1971, Bangladesh emerged as one of the world’s poorest nations. Its economy was shattered, and it lacked any significant industrial base to drive recovery.⁴ The country’s primary export earner, the jute industry, was entering a period of terminal decline, creating an urgent economic vacuum that needed to be filled.⁴

The genesis of the modern Ready-Made Garments (RMG) sector was not an organic, indigenous evolution but rather a strategic transplant of a proven business model into this fertile economic soil. While a few small firms like Riaz Garments and Jewel Garments made early attempts at exporting in the late 1970s, the pivotal moment arrived in 1977 with a collaboration between South Korea’s Daewoo Corporation and Desh Garments, a local firm founded by the visionary entrepreneur Nurool Quader Khan.² Daewoo, a major global apparel exporter, was constrained by textile import quotas imposed by Western nations under the 1974 Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA) and was actively seeking partners in countries with unused quota allocations.²

This partnership provided the “starter kit” of technical expertise, management know-how, and crucial market access that Bangladesh desperately lacked. In 1978, Nurool Quader Khan sent 130 trainees to Daewoo’s facilities in South Korea for comprehensive training in modern garment production.² This initial cohort became the skilled nucleus of the new export-oriented industry. Crucially, this knowledge did not remain siloed within one company. Of the original 130 trainees, all but 15 eventually left Desh Garments, either to establish their own factories or to join other emerging firms at higher salaries.² These individuals became the “apostles” of the new industry, disseminating their expertise and creating an exponential multiplier effect that seeded a dynamic and rapidly expanding ecosystem of entrepreneurs.

1.3 The MFA Era and Explosive Growth: How Quotas Catalyzed an Export Powerhouse

The Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA) was the single most important external factor in the industry’s explosive growth. This global system of import quotas, designed to protect textile industries in developed nations, was a constraint for established exporters like South Korea and Hong Kong. For a newcomer like Bangladesh, however, it was a golden opportunity. The MFA is widely described as a “blessing” that created a protected incubation period, allowing the nascent Bangladeshi industry to take root, develop, and mature without having to face fatal, direct competition from more efficient global giants.²

This period of protected growth was amplified by supportive government policies. Recognizing the sector’s immense potential, the government of President Hussain Ershad aggressively promoted private and foreign investment. A key policy was the establishment of Export Processing Zones (EPZs), starting with the Chittagong EPZ in 1980, which offered a favorable environment for export-oriented manufacturing.² Furthermore, the government offered critical incentives, such as the duty-free import of textile machinery and raw materials, which lowered the barrier to entry and fueled rapid expansion.² The denationalization and privatization of the state-owned Bangladesh Textile Mills Corporation (BTMC) beginning in 1981 further signaled a decisive shift towards a private sector-led industrial model, attracting a new wave of entrepreneurs into the burgeoning garment trade.²

1.4 Post-MFA Resilience: Defying Predictions and Consolidating Global Position

As the 2004 deadline for the phase-out of the MFA approached, a consensus emerged among many global trade analysts: Bangladesh’s RMG sector was doomed. The removal of the quota system, it was predicted, would expose the industry to the full force of competition from hyper-efficient producers like China, leading to a massive collapse in exports.²

However, the industry defied all predictions. While the end of the MFA was a shock, the sector proved remarkably resilient, conquering the post-MFA challenges and continuing its growth trajectory.⁴ Its survival and subsequent consolidation as a global powerhouse were overwhelmingly attributed to one critical, unassailable competitive advantage: the availability of the cheapest apparel labor in the world.² This hyper-competitive labor cost structure allowed Bangladeshi factories to offer prices that even more efficient producers could not match, ensuring they retained their stronghold in the global market for basic, high-volume garments.

This reliance on low-cost labor was a double-edged sword. It guaranteed the industry’s survival and fueled its continued expansion, making it a world leader in volume production. At the same time, it cemented a business model fundamentally predicated on a low-wage paradigm. This paradigm, while successful for decades, would ultimately sow the seeds for the profound social, labor, and safety challenges that would come to define the industry’s next chapter.

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II. The Engine of the Economy: Structure and Socio-Economic Impact of the Modern RMG Sector

The Ready-Made Garments (RMG) industry is not merely a sector within the Bangladeshi economy; it is the primary engine of its growth, the largest source of its foreign exchange, and a defining feature of its modern social landscape. Its immense scale has lifted millions out of poverty while creating a structural dependency that makes the entire national economy vulnerable to its fortunes. The industry’s socio-economic impact is a profound paradox, representing both a revolutionary force for female empowerment and a source of ongoing exploitation.

2.1 Anatomy of the Industry: Key Segments and Linkages

The heart of the industry is the RMG sector, which is broadly divided into two principal sub-sectors: knitwear (e.g., t-shirts, sweaters, polo shirts) and woven garments (e.g., shirts, trousers, denim). In the 2023 fiscal year, knitwear exports constituted 47.70% of total RMG exports, while woven garments accounted for 37.14%.⁶

Over the decades, the industry has developed significant backward linkages to support its massive production needs. The domestic Primary Textile Sector (PTS) has grown to meet a substantial portion of the RMG sector’s raw material demand, supplying approximately 85-90% of the yarn required for knitwear and 35-40% for woven garments.⁷ This domestic capacity reduces lead times and provides a degree of supply chain stability. However, a critical dependency remains on imported raw materials, particularly for more complex, high-value, and man-made fiber (MMF) fabrics, which represents a key strategic vulnerability and an area targeted for future development.⁸ Subcontracting is another defining feature, where Western brands place orders with primary factories, which then often distribute parts of the order to smaller, secondary factories to meet quota deadlines, a practice that can obscure accountability for labor and safety standards.²

2.2 Macroeconomic Significance: The Unrivaled Contributor

The RMG sector’s contribution to Bangladesh’s national economy is unparalleled and can be quantified across several key metrics.

• Export Earnings: It is the single largest source of foreign currency, consistently accounting for over 84% of the country’s total export revenue.⁴ In the 2023-2024 fiscal year, textile and garment exports exceeded $43 billion.⁷ For the 2024 calendar year, RMG exports alone reached $38.48 billion, demonstrating remarkable resilience amid global economic headwinds.¹¹
• Contribution to GDP: The sector is a cornerstone of the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP). While estimates vary depending on the fiscal year and calculation methodology, its direct contribution is consistently reported in the range of 10.35% to 16%.⁶ This makes it the most significant industrial contributor to the national economy.
• Employment: The industry is the largest formal employer in the country. It provides direct employment to over 4 million workers in more than 3,500 factories.² The multiplier effect is even more profound, with the sector indirectly supporting the livelihoods of nearly 20 million people through a vast ecosystem of backward-linkage industries, including packaging, transport, logistics, and urban services.⁷

Table 1: Key Economic Indicators of the Bangladesh RMG Sector

Metric	Value / Status	Period	Source(s)
Total RMG Exports	$46.99 billion	FY 2023	6
	$38.48 billion	Calendar Year 2024	11
Share of National Exports	84.58%	FY 2023	6
Contribution to GDP	10.35% – 16%	~FY 2023	6
Direct Employment	> 4 million	~2023	2
Indirect Employment	~20 million	~2024	7
Global Rank (Exporter)	2nd Largest	2024	7
Global Market Share	6.90%	2024	23

2.3 The Global Footprint: Market Position and Key Relationships

On the world stage, Bangladesh is firmly established as the second-largest apparel exporter, surpassed only by China.⁷ In 2024, the country’s RMG exports captured a 6.90% share of the $557.5 billion global apparel market.²³

This global position, however, reveals a critical structural vulnerability: concentration risk. The industry is overwhelmingly dependent on a small number of developed Western markets.

1. The European Union stands as its largest regional market, absorbing 50.34% of RMG exports in 2024, valued at $19.37 billion.¹²
2. The United States is the most important single-country destination, accounting for 18.72% of exports, or $7.2 billion.¹²
3. The United Kingdom follows at 11.25%, with exports of $4.3 billion.¹²

Together, these two regions and one country account for over 80% of all RMG exports. This heavy reliance makes the entire Bangladeshi economy acutely susceptible to any economic downturn, policy shift, or protectionist measure enacted in these key markets. This dependency extends to buyers as well, with a handful of multinational retail giants dominating the order books. The top ten buyers, led by H&M ($2.59 billion), Inditex (parent of Zara, $2.18 billion), and Primark ($1.12 billion), account for nearly 29% of all exports.²⁸ A significant reduction in orders from just one of these mega-buyers could have a cascading negative impact on hundreds of factories and thousands of workers.

Table 2: Top Export Destinations and Market Share (2024)

Rank	Country / Region	Export Value (USD Billion)	Percentage of Total RMG Exports
1	European Union	$19.37	50.34%
	Germany	$4.83	12.55%
	Spain	$3.42	8.89%
	France	$2.14	5.56%
2	United States	$7.20	18.72%
3	United Kingdom	$4.30	11.25%
4	Canada	$1.24	3.23%
5	Non-Traditional Markets	$6.33	16.46%
	Japan	$1.12	2.91%
	Australia	$0.83	2.16%
	India	$0.61	1.59%
Total		$38.48	100%

Source: Compiled from data in ¹²

2.4 The Social Fabric: A Double-Edged Sword of Empowerment

No analysis of the RMG sector is complete without examining its profound and paradoxical social impact. The industry has been the single most powerful driver of female participation in the formal workforce in the nation’s history. Women constitute the majority of the labor force, with estimates placing their share between 53% and 55% in recent years, down from highs of over 80% in the industry’s infancy.²⁰ For millions of women, many migrating from rural villages, a factory job has provided a pathway to economic independence, contributing directly to poverty reduction, improved social mobility, and gains in key human development indicators such as female literacy.⁷

This phenomenon can be described as constrained empowerment. The empowerment was an incidental byproduct of the industry’s demand for a large, low-cost labor force, not a primary objective of its business model. Consequently, this empowerment has come at a significant cost. The industry’s competitiveness is built on a foundation of low wages, which, despite periodic increases, remain far below what is calculated to be a living wage, forcing many workers to endure long hours of overtime to make ends meet.²⁰ Working conditions have historically been poor, and female workers are particularly vulnerable to systemic issues like gender-based violence and harassment, with limited opportunities for career progression into supervisory or managerial roles.³¹

A deeply concerning trend is the steady decline in female participation in the workforce. The drop from over 80% to 53% by 2023 is attributed to several factors, including the automation of entry-level roles predominantly held by women and a growing reluctance among second-generation workers to enter laborious factory jobs.²⁰ This reveals the fragility of the empowerment model: the very technological and economic evolution that the industry must undergo to survive is now disproportionately pushing women out of the workforce, demonstrating that their economic inclusion was contingent on a specific, and now increasingly obsolete, mode of production.

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III. The Rana Plaza Inflection Point: A Catalyst for Systemic Transformation

The date April 24, 2013, is etched into the history of the global garment industry. The collapse of the Rana Plaza building was not merely a tragic industrial accident; it was a fundamental inflection point that irrevocably altered the trajectory of the Bangladeshi RMG sector. It exposed the fatal consequences of a business model that had prioritized cost above all else and served as a brutal catalyst for systemic reforms. The disaster forcibly shifted the industry’s value proposition, making a baseline of safety and compliance a mandatory, non-negotiable cost of doing business.

3.1 Anatomy of a Tragedy: The 2013 Collapse and its Global Reverberations

On that fateful morning in Savar, on the outskirts of Dhaka, the eight-story Rana Plaza commercial building crumbled to the ground in less than a minute.³⁵ The final death toll was confirmed at 1,134, with approximately 2,500 others rescued from the rubble with injuries, many of them life-altering.³⁶ It remains the deadliest structural failure in modern history and the deadliest garment-factory disaster ever recorded.³⁶

The collapse was a preventable catastrophe born of gross negligence and greed. The building’s upper floors had been constructed illegally without proper permits or structural support, and the heavy vibrations from thousands of industrial sewing machines placed an unbearable load on the weak structure.³⁶ The day before the collapse, large, ominous cracks appeared in the building’s support columns. While the bank and shops on the lower floors immediately evacuated, the owners of the five garment factories housed on the upper floors ordered their employees—the vast majority of whom were women, many 20 years old or younger—to return to their posts, threatening to withhold pay if they refused.³⁵

The tragedy sparked a wave of international outrage. As rescue operations continued for weeks, the list of Western companies sourcing from the factories in Rana Plaza was publicized, implicating major brands such as Walmart, Benetton, The Children’s Place, and Joe Fresh.³⁵ Consumers in Europe and North America were confronted with the human cost of their fast-fashion consumption, creating immense and sustained pressure on these brands, as well as on the Bangladeshi government, to take immediate and meaningful action.³⁵

3.2 The Response: The Accord, The Alliance, and a New Paradigm for Worker Safety

In the direct aftermath of the collapse, two major, competing initiatives were formed by international brands to address the crisis of factory safety.

• The Accord on Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh: Signed on May 15, 2013, the Accord was a landmark five-year agreement primarily driven by European brands and retailers, in partnership with global and local trade unions.³⁵ Its most critical feature was its
  legally binding nature. Signatory brands were legally obligated to ensure their supplier factories underwent independent safety inspections and completed mandated remediation plans. This accountability mechanism, backed by the threat of legal action and the loss of business, gave the Accord unprecedented enforcement power. It ultimately covered over 1,600 factories.³⁶
• The Alliance for Bangladesh Worker Safety: Formed in July 2013, the Alliance was a parallel, five-year initiative created by a group of 28 major North American retailers, including giants like Walmart, Gap, and Target.³⁶ This initiative was immediately criticized by labor rights groups for lacking the legally binding commitments of the Accord.³⁶ This divergence highlighted a significant philosophical and legal divide in the approach to corporate responsibility, with European brands accepting a level of direct accountability that their North American counterparts were reluctant to assume.

Together, these two initiatives undertook a colossal task. They conducted nearly 56,000 inspections across more than 2,000 factories, identifying over 140,000 distinct structural, electrical, and fire safety hazards and overseeing the implementation of corrective action plans to remedy them.³⁸

3.3 The Legacy of Reform: From International Oversight to National Ownership

The pressure from the Accord and the Alliance spurred significant domestic reforms. The Bangladeshi government amended the Bangladesh Labour Law in 2013 and again in 2018. These changes made it easier for workers to form trade unions without requiring permission from factory owners and mandated the establishment of joint labor-management Safety Committees in factories with 50 or more workers.³⁸ The government’s inspection body, the Department of Inspections for Factories and Establishments (DIFE), was also significantly strengthened with increased budget, staff, and authority.³⁸

The impact of these combined efforts was dramatic and quantifiable. Workplace safety improved markedly, with the number of deaths from accidents in the garment sector plummeting from 1,548 in the 2005-2013 period to just 18 between 2013 and 2022.⁴²

A crucial development in the legacy of these reforms was the transition from international oversight to national ownership. As the Accord and Alliance initiatives concluded their initial terms, the RMG Sustainability Council (RSC) was established in 2020. The RSC is a permanent, national tripartite body, bringing together industry owners (represented by BGMEA), international brands, and trade unions to continue the work of safety inspections, remediation monitoring, and training.³⁸ This transition represents a vital step towards institutionalizing the safety culture within Bangladesh itself.

Table 3: Post-Rana Plaza Safety & Labor Reforms: A Timeline

Year	Initiative / Legislation	Key Features	Impact
2013	Rana Plaza Collapse (Apr)	1,134 deaths; global outrage exposes systemic safety failures.	Catalyst for all subsequent reforms.
2013	Accord Signed (May)	Legally binding agreement between brands (mostly EU) and unions.	Mandated independent inspections and remediation in over 1,600 factories.
2013	Alliance Formed (Jul)	Non-binding initiative by North American retailers.	Conducted parallel inspections and safety programs in over 700 factories.
2013	Labour Law Amended	Eased trade union registration; mandated Safety Committees.	Increased number of registered unions; created formal safety structures.
2020	RSC Established	National tripartite body (industry, brands, unions) takes over Accord’s work.	Institutionalizes safety monitoring under national ownership.
2021	International Accord	New, expanded agreement succeeds the original Accord.	Extends safety commitments and expands potential country coverage.

Source: Compiled from data in ³⁵

3.4 Persistent Challenges: The Unfinished Agenda

Despite the monumental progress, the reform agenda remains unfinished. The transition to the national RSC has raised concerns. As of early 2024, approximately one-fifth of RMG factories were still not compliant with safety standards, and the pace of remediation work has reportedly slowed since the RSC assumed responsibility, suggesting that the enforcement “teeth” of the original, brand-backed international agreements may have been stronger.⁴²

Furthermore, the reforms primarily addressed physical safety, leaving many of the sector’s underlying social issues unresolved. The fundamental challenges of low wages, which remain below a living wage, and gender-based violence and harassment persist.³¹ Freedom of association, while improved on paper, remains a significant challenge in practice. Workers who attempt to organize or speak out about poor conditions still face intimidation, retaliation, and anti-union discrimination from management.³⁹ This creates a climate where worker voices, though given avenues for feedback through grievance mechanisms, are rarely included in genuine, high-level decision-making processes.⁴⁴ The social contract of the industry was fundamentally altered by Rana Plaza, introducing a non-negotiable “safety premium” to the cost of production. This necessary maturation, however, increased operational expenses in a low-margin business, creating a new economic pressure that inadvertently accelerated the industry’s push towards cost-saving automation—a development with its own profound consequences for the workforce.

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IV. The Fourth Industrial Revolution on the Factory Floor: Technology and the Workforce of Tomorrow

The Bangladeshi RMG sector is in the midst of a gradual but accelerating technological transformation. Driven by the relentless global pressures for greater efficiency, faster turnaround times, and higher quality, the industry is slowly embracing the tools of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Industry 4.0). This adoption of automation and digitalization is a necessary strategy for survival and competitiveness. However, it creates a fundamental and painful paradox: the industry is improving its efficiency by systematically displacing the very low-skilled, predominantly female workforce that powered its initial rise to prominence.

4.1 Digitalization and Smart Factories: The Slow Embrace of Industry 4.0

Digital technologies are being integrated across the production value chain to streamline operations and enhance transparency.⁴⁵ This digital transformation includes:

• Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): Systems like ERP360+ are being adopted to integrate disparate functions such as inventory management, order processing, production scheduling, and payroll onto a single platform, providing real-time data for better decision-making.⁴⁵
• Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and 3D Prototyping: The use of CAD software for pattern making and 3D modeling for virtual sampling is becoming more common. These tools dramatically reduce the time and material waste associated with creating physical prototypes, allowing for faster design-to-production cycles.⁴⁵
• Smart Factory and IoT: The concepts of the “smart factory” are beginning to take root. The Internet of Things (IoT) is being used to connect machinery and install sensors that allow for real-time monitoring of production processes and enable predictive maintenance, which can reduce costly downtime.⁴⁵

Despite these advancements, the overall adoption of Industry 4.0 technologies remains nascent. A 2025 study assessing the sector’s readiness found a maturity level of just 1.91 on a 5-point scale, indicating that implementation is still in its very early stages.⁴⁹ Significant barriers, including poor digital infrastructure, unreliable energy supply, and the high capital cost of new technology, continue to hinder widespread adoption.⁵¹

4.2 The Rise of the Robots: Automation in Core Processes

While full, end-to-end automation of garment production remains technologically challenging due to the difficulty of handling limp fabrics, task-specific automation is being deployed in key areas to boost productivity and ensure consistent quality.⁵²

• Cutting: This is one of the areas most impacted by automation. Automated cutting machines, from providers like Gerber and Lectra, use computer-guided blades to cut multiple layers of fabric with high precision. This not only increases speed but also significantly reduces fabric waste compared to manual cutting.⁵²
• Sewing: The core sewing process remains largely manual, but automated machines for specific, repetitive tasks are increasingly common. These include Automatic Pocket Setters (APS), which can mark, iron, and attach a pocket in a single operation; Automatic Sleeve Placket Attachers; and Automatic Pocket Welting (APW) machines.⁵² These IoT-enabled devices reduce the number of steps and manual labor required for complex operations.
• Finishing and Sorting: Automated systems for finishing processes and material handling are being introduced. A critical area for future automation is in textile waste sorting for recycling. Advanced optical sorting technology can automatically categorize textile scraps by fiber type and color, a crucial step for high-quality recycling that is still performed manually in Bangladesh.⁵⁵

This pattern of adoption reveals a “lumpy” technological landscape. The industry has focused on digitizing pre-production (design, planning) and automating discrete, easily mechanized tasks (cutting, pocket setting). However, the core of the assembly line—the complex process of sewing and moving garments between stations—remains heavily reliant on manual labor. This means Bangladesh is achieving incremental efficiency gains in some areas but has yet to achieve the transformative leap in productivity that more holistic automation could provide, all while still bearing the full social cost of job displacement in the areas it can automate.

Table 4: Technology Adoption in the RMG Sector: Examples and Impacts

Technology / Application	Impact on Production	Impact on Workforce
CAD / 3D Virtual Sampling	Reduces physical prototyping time and cost; accelerates design approval.	Creates demand for skilled digital designers and pattern makers.
ERP Systems	Integrates business processes; provides real-time data for better planning.	Requires data analysts and IT support staff; streamlines HR functions.
Automated Cutting Machines	Increases cutting speed and precision; reduces fabric waste.	Significant displacement of manual cutters, a role with high female employment.
Automated Sewing (e.g., APS)	Increases speed and consistency for specific tasks; reduces process steps.	Displacement of specialized sewing operators, predominantly women.
IoT for Predictive Maintenance	Reduces machine downtime; optimizes maintenance schedules.	Creates need for technicians skilled in IoT and data analysis.

Source: Compiled from data in ⁴⁵

4.3 The Human Cost of Progress: Automation’s Disproportionate Impact on Women

The drive for automation, while economically necessary, is exacting a heavy human toll. A 2025 report concluded that technological upgrades have led to an overall workforce reduction of 30.58% in automated lines.⁵⁷ The impact is most severe in certain sub-sectors, with sweater manufacturing seeing a 37% decline in labor per production line and the cutting stage alone experiencing a 48% reduction.⁵⁷

This impact is profoundly gendered. The jobs being eliminated are overwhelmingly the low-skill, repetitive tasks—helpers, trimmers, basic sewing machine operators—that have historically been the entry point into the formal economy for millions of Bangladeshi women.⁵⁹ The data is stark: a single automated cutting machine, typically operated by two or three male technicians, can replace a team of around 20 manual cutters, most of whom are women.⁵⁴ This gender-biased technological transition is a primary driver of the observed decline in the female share of the RMG workforce.³² This is often compounded by a perception among factory owners that female workers are less capable of handling complex modern machinery, further limiting their opportunities in an automated environment.³²

4.4 Bridging the Gap: The Critical Need for Reskilling and Upskilling

There is a widespread and urgent recognition among stakeholders that the only way to mitigate this human cost is through a massive effort to reskill and upskill the existing workforce, particularly women.⁵³ The goal is to create pathways for displaced workers to transition into the new, higher-skilled roles being created by technology—such as operating sophisticated machinery, digital design, quality control, and maintenance.

Several promising, albeit small-scale, initiatives are underway:

• The H&M Foundation, in partnership with organizations like CARE and Shimmy Technologies, has launched a collaborative program to equip female garment workers with a combination of soft skills (e.g., problem-solving, digital communication) and hard technical skills.⁵⁹
• Shimmy Technologies employs an innovative, gamified training model delivered via mobile phones and tablets to upskill women for advanced operator and digital design roles. A pilot program proved effective, with over 55% of the 452 female trainees securing employment in the RMG supply chain within six months.⁶⁵

Despite these positive examples, experts warn that current efforts are merely a “drop in the bucket” compared to the scale of the impending displacement.⁵³ One study has projected that, without a large-scale, coordinated intervention, nearly 60% of Bangladesh’s garment workers could face unemployment by 2030.⁵⁴ This reveals a dangerous disconnect between the rapid pace of automation-driven job loss and the limited scale of the solutions being deployed. The industry is shedding low-skill jobs far faster than it is creating viable pathways for those same workers to acquire new skills, creating a “skills cliff” that threatens to push hundreds of thousands of women out of the formal economy and reverse decades of progress in poverty reduction and female empowerment.⁶⁶

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V. Weaving a Greener Thread: Sustainability and the Circular Economy

In the decade following the Rana Plaza disaster, the Bangladeshi RMG industry has embarked on a deliberate and ambitious strategic pivot. Confronted with a global reputation damaged by safety failures and labor exploitation, the sector has sought to redefine its brand identity. The primary vehicle for this transformation has been a concerted push towards environmental sustainability. This is not merely an exercise in corporate social responsibility; it is a core competitive strategy aimed at changing the global narrative about “Made in Bangladesh” from one associated with being “cheap and dangerous” to one synonymous with being “green and responsible.”

5.1 The Green Factory Revolution: Leading the World in LEED Certification

The most visible and successful pillar of this sustainability strategy is the industry’s emergence as the undisputed world leader in “green” factories. Bangladesh now hosts the highest number of LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certified garment factories globally.⁶⁷

As of mid-2025, the country is home to 248 LEED-certified facilities, with over 500 more in the certification pipeline.⁶⁷ The quality of these certifications is as impressive as the quantity. The total includes 105 factories that have achieved the highest “Platinum” rating and 129 that have earned a “Gold” rating.⁶⁷ This dominance is even more pronounced at the elite level: an astonishing 9 of the world’s top 10 highest-rated LEED factories, and 68 of the top 100, are located in Bangladesh.⁶⁷

This achievement is the result of a conscious and capital-intensive effort by factory owners. LEED certification requires significant investment in environmentally friendly infrastructure, such as advanced water treatment plants, energy-efficient machinery, solar power installations, and improved waste management systems.⁷¹ The motivation is twofold: it is a response to the growing demand from international buyers for sustainable and ethical sourcing, and it is a strategic move to build trust, enhance long-term competitiveness, and potentially command higher prices for their products.⁶⁷ Notable pioneers in this green revolution include Envoy Textiles, which operates the world’s first LEED Platinum-certified denim mill, and other leading firms like Plummy Fashions and Echotex.⁷³

5.2 The Circularity Challenge: From Linear ‘Take-Make-Waste’ to a Regenerative Model

While the industry has made impressive strides in building green infrastructure, it faces a far more complex challenge in transforming its production processes. The traditional textile industry operates on a linear “take-make-waste” model that is inherently unsustainable. This model is particularly resource-intensive in Bangladesh:

• Water Consumption: The dyeing and finishing processes are extremely water-intensive, with the industry consuming an estimated 250 to 300 liters of water to produce a single kilogram of fabric. This places immense strain on the country’s water resources and contributes to significant water pollution from untreated effluent.¹⁰
• Waste Generation: The sector produces a massive volume of waste. An estimated 600,000 tons of post-production textile waste (known as jhute) is generated annually.⁷⁴ The vast majority of this waste is either downcycled into low-value products, exported, or sent to landfills.⁷⁵

The concept of a Circular Economy (CE) offers a pathway to break this destructive cycle. A circular model aims to design out waste and pollution, keep products and materials in use for as long as possible through reuse and recycling, and regenerate natural systems.¹⁰

5.3 Closing the Loop: Progress and Potential in Textile Waste Recycling

The economic potential of embracing circularity is immense. It is estimated that by effectively recycling its existing textile waste, Bangladesh could generate an additional US$3 billion in annual GDP, primarily by substituting imported virgin materials (like cotton and polyester) with locally recycled fibers and by creating new, diversified products.⁷⁴

Several initiatives have been launched to capture this potential. The government has introduced a National 3R (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) Strategy to provide a guiding framework.⁷² A more impactful initiative is the

Circular Fashion Partnership, a collaboration between the BGMEA, over 30 global brands (including H&M, Marks & Spencer, and C&A), and leading textile recyclers. This partnership aims to create commercially viable systems to capture post-production waste and channel it back into the production of new garments.⁷⁵

However, the transition to a circular model is still in its infancy. There is a significant “sustainability gap” between the industry’s success in building green “hardware” (factories) and its progress in implementing circular “processes.” Currently, only about 5% of the country’s textile waste is recycled within a high-value, fiber-to-fiber system.⁷² The primary barriers are systemic:

• A lack of significant investment in modern, large-scale recycling facilities.
• The absence of a comprehensive and supportive national policy framework for circularity.
• A fragmented waste collection and sorting system, which is still largely manual.
• The established practice of exporting valuable, recyclable waste to neighboring countries like India, which undermines the business case for building domestic recycling capacity.⁷⁴

This disparity shows that while the industry has been successful in making one-time capital investments in green buildings, it is struggling with the more complex, collaborative, and process-oriented challenge of building a fully circular ecosystem.

5.4 BGMEA’s Vision 2030: A Commitment to Sustainable Growth

Recognizing these challenges, the Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association (BGMEA) has articulated a clear and ambitious roadmap with its “Sustainability Vision 2030”.⁶⁸ This vision moves beyond generic commitments to set specific, quantifiable targets for the industry to achieve by the end of the decade:

• A 30% reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
• A 50% reduction in the use of groundwater.
• 50% of materials to be sourced from sustainable inputs.
• 20% of energy to be derived from renewable sources.
• The zero discharge of hazardous chemicals (ZDHC).

This strategic vision is critical as it aligns the entire Bangladeshi RMG sector with global sustainability frameworks, such as the UN Fashion Industry Charter for Climate Action. It sends a powerful signal to international buyers, investors, and policymakers that the industry is serious about its transformation and is committed to becoming a global leader not just in volume, but in responsible and sustainable manufacturing.⁶⁸

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VI. The Path to 2041 and Beyond: Navigating Future Challenges and Seizing Opportunities

As the Bangladeshi RMG sector looks towards the future, its path is fraught with unprecedented challenges that threaten its long-standing business model. At the same time, these pressures are forcing a necessary and strategic evolution, creating new opportunities for growth and resilience. The industry finds itself at a critical juncture where its ability to navigate intense competition, adverse trade policies, and domestic vulnerabilities will determine its trajectory for decades to come.

6.1 The Competitive Landscape: The Threat from Regional Rivals

While Bangladesh has firmly held its position as the world’s second-largest apparel exporter, its dominance is not guaranteed. It faces fierce competition from other low-cost and increasingly sophisticated manufacturing hubs in Asia. Vietnam, the third-largest exporter, poses the most immediate threat. In 2024, Vietnam’s apparel exports grew by a robust 9.34%, while Bangladesh’s growth was a modest 0.21%, indicating that Vietnam is rapidly gaining ground and capturing market share.²³ Other significant competitors, such as India and Turkey, also continue to vie for a larger share of the global market.²³ To maintain its competitive edge, Bangladesh must urgently move beyond a strategy based solely on low labor costs and compete on factors like quality, speed, innovation, and sustainability.

6.2 Geopolitical and Trade Headwinds: Tariffs and LDC Graduation

The industry is facing a potential “pincer movement” of external trade pressures that attacks the two foundational pillars of its historical success: low production cost and preferential market access.

• US Tariffs: The proposed imposition of a 35% retaliatory tariff by the United States on all Bangladeshi goods has been described by industry stakeholders as an existential threat.⁶⁶ When combined with existing duties of around 15-16%, the total levy on garments entering the US market could exceed 50%.⁶⁶ Such a tariff would be “catastrophic,” effectively wiping out the thin profit margins on which the industry operates and rendering exports to its second-largest market commercially unviable.⁶⁶ The mere threat of these tariffs has already begun to erode buyer confidence, leading to reports of declining or cancelled orders.⁷⁹
• LDC Graduation: Bangladesh is on track to graduate from its status as a Least Developed Country (LDC) by 2026.⁷⁰ While a mark of economic progress, this graduation will come at a steep price: the loss of preferential, duty-free trade access to many of its key markets. The most significant impact will be in the European Union, its largest market. Post-LDC status could result in the imposition of new tariffs as high as 9.6% on garment exports to the EU. Projections suggest this loss of duty-free benefits could cause a decline in garment exports by as much as 10.8% by 2031.³²

These are not separate, cyclical challenges; they are simultaneous, structural threats that attack the very core of the industry’s long-standing business model. This creates an unprecedented pressure that makes the strategic pivot to a new, more resilient model a matter of survival, not just of choice.

6.3 Domestic Fault Lines: Energy, Infrastructure, and Stability

The industry’s ability to respond to these external threats is being severely undermined by critical domestic vulnerabilities. A severe industrial gas shortage has emerged as a major bottleneck, acting as a “threat multiplier.” The textile segment of the industry is highly energy-intensive, and a sharp decline in gas supply has forced many factories to operate at just 55-65% of their capacity.⁸² This energy crisis directly compromises the industry’s ability to meet the tight production deadlines required for high-value fashion, increases lead times, and damages its hard-won reputation for reliability. It also raises the operational costs of the energy-intensive green technologies that are central to its sustainability-focused competitive strategy.⁸²

Furthermore, the political instability following the “Monsoon Revolution” in 2024 has created a climate of uncertainty for both workers and investors. The period saw widespread factory closures and has left the future of labor relations and government policy in a state of flux, adding another layer of risk to the business environment.⁸¹

6.4 The Value-Addition Imperative: The Only Path Forward

Faced with these immense pressures, the only sustainable path forward for the industry is to accelerate its transition up the value chain. It must evolve from being a low-cost manufacturer of basic garments to a sophisticated producer of high-value, complex, and innovative apparel.

Encouragingly, there is clear evidence that this strategic pivot is already beginning. A growing number of global luxury and premium brands, which had previously shunned Bangladesh, are now turning to the country as a reliable sourcing destination. High-end brands such as Hugo Boss, Ralph Lauren, and G-Star Raw are actively increasing their sourcing from Bangladeshi factories.⁸⁴

This shift is reflected in the products being made. Where factories were once unable to secure orders for jackets priced above $25 per piece, they are now producing complex outerwear with a Free On Board (FOB) price of $100. Similarly, some manufacturers are exporting premium denim pants for up to $35 per pair, compared to a market average of around $6.⁸⁴ This move also involves a diversification of materials, with a greater focus on producing garments from technical textiles and man-made fibers (MMF), moving beyond the traditional reliance on basic cotton.⁸ This value-addition imperative is no longer just an opportunity for higher margins; it is the central strategy for the industry’s future survival and growth.

Table 5: SWOT Analysis for the Future of the Bangladesh RMG Sector

Strengths	Weaknesses
• World’s #2 apparel exporter with established scale and capacity.	• Heavy dependence on a few key markets (EU, US) and buyers.
• Large, experienced, and highly cost-competitive labor force.	• Predominantly low-value, basic product mix with thin margins.
• Global leadership in LEED-certified green factories, providing a key sustainability credential.	• Critical domestic deficits in energy supply and infrastructure.
• Significant backward linkage capacity in primary textiles (especially knit).	• Political instability and uncertainty in policy environment.
Opportunities	Threats
• Move up the value chain into high-value, complex, and luxury apparel.	• Imposition of prohibitive tariffs by the US, its second-largest market.
• Diversify export destinations, with strong growth in non-traditional markets (Japan, Australia, India).	• Loss of preferential trade access to the EU upon LDC graduation in 2026.
• Become a global leader in the circular economy by developing a domestic textile recycling industry.	• Intense and growing competition from regional rivals, especially Vietnam.
• Leverage technology (automation, AI) to increase productivity and efficiency.	• Mass job displacement from automation leading to social unrest.

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VII. Strategic Imperatives and Recommendations for a Resilient Future

The analysis presented in this report makes it clear that the Bangladeshi textile and garment industry is at a pivotal moment. Its past successes do not guarantee its future prosperity. Navigating the complex web of external threats and domestic challenges while seizing emerging opportunities requires a coordinated, strategic, and urgent response from all stakeholders. The following recommendations provide a roadmap for building a more resilient, sustainable, and high-value industry.

7.1 For Policymakers (Government of Bangladesh)

• Prioritize Energy and Infrastructure as National Economic Security: The industrial gas shortage is a critical bottleneck that undermines the entire export economy. The government must treat the resolution of the energy crisis and the modernization of infrastructure (including ports and logistics) as its highest economic priority. This includes fast-tracking investment in both domestic gas exploration and renewable energy sources to ensure a stable and predictable power supply for industrial zones.
• Engage in Proactive and Strategic Trade Diplomacy: The twin threats of US tariffs and LDC graduation require a sophisticated and sustained diplomatic effort. High-level delegations must be dispatched to Washington to negotiate a mitigation of the proposed tariffs. Simultaneously, a dedicated team must work to secure a favorable GSP+ (or equivalent) trade agreement with the European Union and a similar arrangement with the UK to ensure continued market access post-LDC graduation.
• Establish a National “Just Transition” Framework: The government cannot leave the social consequences of automation solely to the industry. It must develop and fund a national “Just Transition” policy for the RMG workforce. This should include robust social safety nets for displaced workers and the creation of large-scale, state-supported vocational training and upskilling centers focused on imparting the digital literacy and technical skills required for the jobs of the future.
• Incentivize the Circular Economy: To move beyond nascent projects, the government must create a powerful business case for circularity. This should include concrete financial incentives, such as targeted tax breaks, low-interest loans, and land allocation for companies willing to make large-scale investments in modern textile recycling and waste processing infrastructure.

7.2 For Industry Leaders (BGMEA, BKMEA, Factory Owners)

• Accelerate the Pivot to Value-Addition: Industry associations and individual factory owners must aggressively pursue a strategy of value-addition. This requires investment in in-house design and product development capabilities, a strategic focus on diversifying into high-demand categories like man-made fibers and technical textiles, and proactive marketing efforts to attract and retain high-value and luxury brand partners.
• Treat Workforce Upskilling as a Core Business Investment: In an automated industry, a skilled workforce is not a cost but a critical asset. Factory owners must shift their mindset and invest systematically in continuous training and upskilling programs for their employees. This is essential for operating the advanced machinery needed for high-quality production and for fostering a culture of innovation and efficiency.
• Champion a Domestic Recycling Ecosystem: Instead of waiting for external investment, industry leaders should form consortia to collectively invest in the creation of a domestic recycling ecosystem. By pooling resources to build modern collection, automated sorting, and fiber recycling facilities, the industry can capture the immense economic value of the textile waste that is currently being exported or downcycled.

7.3 For International Buyers & Brands

• Evolve from Transactional Sourcing to Strategic Partnership: The long-term health of the Bangladeshi supply chain is in the direct interest of the brands that rely on it. Buyers must move beyond a purely transactional relationship focused on price and delivery. This means forming long-term strategic partnerships with key suppliers, which can include co-investment in workforce upskilling programs, technology upgrades, and circularity initiatives.
• Reform Purchasing Practices to Support the Transition: Brands cannot demand higher standards of sustainability and ethical production while simultaneously squeezing suppliers on price and shortening lead times. Purchasing practices must be reformed to provide suppliers with longer-term order visibility and fair pricing that reflects the true cost of producing high-value, sustainable goods.
• Uphold and Strengthen Multi-Stakeholder Governance: Brands must remain actively engaged in and committed to multi-stakeholder initiatives like the RMG Sustainability Council (RSC). Their continued participation and financial support are crucial for ensuring that the hard-won gains in factory safety and labor rights are maintained, strengthened, and not allowed to erode over time.

7.4 For Civil Society & Labor Advocates

• Champion a Truly “Just Transition”: Advocacy efforts should be sharply focused on ensuring that the technological transition is equitable. This means demanding robust social protections, inclusive and accessible training opportunities for all displaced workers (with a special focus on women), and policies that ensure the benefits of increased productivity are shared with the workforce.
• Monitor Governance and Worker Representation: Civil society organizations must act as vigilant watchdogs, monitoring the effectiveness of the RSC and other governance bodies. The focus should be on ensuring that worker voices are not just heard but are genuinely represented in decision-making, and that grievance mechanisms are independent, accessible, and effective in resolving disputes.
• Maintain Global Awareness and Pressure: While celebrating the progress made, it is vital to continue raising global awareness about the persistent challenges facing workers, including the fight for a living wage, the right to freedom of association, and the prevention of gender-based violence. Sustained international pressure on brands and the government remains a powerful tool for completing the unfinished reform agenda.

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